The Swayambhu Stupa is undoubtedly one of the most significant landmarks in the Kathmandu Valley, deeply intertwined with its origin and history. However, its factual history is often blended with various mythological tales, making it essential to separate fact from fiction. The late scholar Bhuvan Lal Pradhan made significant contributions to uncovering the historical facts of Swayambhu, distinguishing them from mythological narratives.
Drawing from his work and that of other scholars, we have attempted to shed some light on this topic. Some key information and phrases have been retained in their original form.
Historical References and Mythology
Swayambhu is mentioned extensively in texts such as the ‘Swayambhu Purana’, ‘Nepal Mahatmya’, ‘Himavat Khanda’, and various genealogical records. According to legend, the Kathmandu Valley was once a vast lake, and at its center, a self-manifested light (Swayambhu) appeared. The Bodhisattva Manjushri is said to have cut through the Chobar hill to drain the lake, making the valley habitable. The texts also mention that Shikhi Buddha and Vipasshi Buddha visited this site. Manjushri is described in religious texts as a Bodhisattva who came from China.
Is this the factual account?
Geological and Archaeological Evidence
Geological studies confirm that the Kathmandu Valley was indeed a lake at some point in history. Archaeological excavations in the Swayambhu area have uncovered pottery shards and other artifacts from the Licchavi period (400–750 CE), indicating that this site has held religious and cultural significance since ancient times.
Who Was Manjushri?
According to Buddhist historians like Rhys Davids and Bhuvan Lal Pradhan, evidence of a monk named Manjushri dates back to the first century CE. Since the name itself is rooted in Buddhist Sanskrit, the popular belief that Manjushri was of Chinese origin needs reconsideration. Additionally, Swayambhu Hill is considered the oldest Mahayana Buddhist site in the valley. Among the Tibetan Himalayan communities, Nepal’s three famous chaityas—Swayambhu, Boudha (Khasti), and Namobuddha—remain popular and revered to this day. Their significance is also reflected in the inclusion of seven Nepalese sites in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
However, over time, the historical facts about Swayambhu have become obscured, giving way to various new interpretations and myths.
Ancient Legends and Rituals
Since ancient times, the valley has been referred to as *Nagvas Hrid* or *Nag Hrid*. In the Satya Yuga, it is said that Vipasshi Buddha came from Bandhumati and meditated at *Jatamatrochcho* (commonly known as *Jamacho*). Vipasshi Buddha is believed to have planted a lotus seed in the valley, from which a flower bloomed, revealing the Swayambhu light. This light is said to have appeared six months after the seed was planted on the full moon day of Chaitra, and it became visible on the full moon day of Ashwin. This is why Ashwin Shukla Purnima is celebrated as Swayambhu Jayanti.
After seeing the Swayambhu light, Shikhi Buddha, who came from Arunpur, witnessed the light and merged with it on the day of Mesha Sankranti. Before merging, he prophesied that this site would become a beautiful place where people would settle and devotees would flock. Similarly, in the Treta Yuga, Vishvabhu Buddha from Anupam Nagar is said to have meditated at *Phulochcho* peak.
The ‘Swayambhu Purana’ from 1455 CE also mentions that Buddha spent some time at Swayambhu Hill to witness the thousand-petaled lotus light. It is also said that Manjushri, before Shakyamuni Buddha, propagated the Mahayana tradition at Swayambhu Hill, though this claim seems less plausible.
Therefore, it is essential to critically examine these Puranas and legends.
Archaeological Evidence of Buddha’s Existence
Archaeological evidence confirms that Gautama Buddha was born around 563 BCE and attained Nirvana around 483 BCE. Excavations and written records from Lumbini and other sites prove that Buddha was a real historical figure, not a mythical one. (Cunningham, R.A.E., Acharya, K.P., et al.: *Early Buddhist Temples: Excavations at Lumbini, the Birthplace of Buddha (Nepal)
The Buddhas before Shakyamuni—Vipasshi, Shikhi, and Kanakamuni (or Konagamana)—were also real individuals, as evidenced by Emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions at Lumbini and Niglihawa. During Ashoka’s time, those who attained high levels of wisdom were revered as Buddhas, Arhats, or Devas. However, there is no mention of other deities or Bodhisattvas from that era.
The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
In the first century CE, during the political changes and the reign of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka (127–150 CE), the Gandhara style of Buddhist art developed, particularly in the Gandhara region. This style blended Greco-Roman and Indian influences. Kanishka organized the Fourth Buddhist Council, where 500 monks compiled and commented on Buddhist texts. It was during this period that the names of deities and Bodhisattvas began to appear in Buddhist texts.
During this period, the depiction of the Buddha took on more supernatural forms, and Bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara and Manjushri gained prominence. Sculptures of these figures began to emerge, reflecting the evolving artistic and spiritual traditions. Concurrently, the Vinaya rules of Buddhism were relaxed, permitting monks to accumulate wealth and other material benefits.
The term Dhamma, which during Ashoka’s time referred to knowledge gained through the observation and understanding of phenomena, gradually evolved into Dharma, encompassing a broader philosophical and ethical framework. This period also saw the development of various branches of Buddhism. The Mahayana tradition, in particular, is believed to have entered Nepal between the 7th and 9th centuries (Rhys D, Upadhyaya, B. (1946). Buddhist Philosophy Mimamsa. Varanasi: Sharada-Mandir).
There is no evidence to suggest that Manjushri was of Chinese origin. Instead, archaeological evidence points to a monk named Manjushri residing in a monastery in India during the first century CE. Nagarjuna, a prominent Madhyamaka philosopher in the second century, is said to have been a disciple of Manjushri. In short, it is clear that the Mahayana tradition was widely propagated by the monk Manjushri.
Manjushri’s Journey
Monk Manjushri traveled from Nepal to India, following the Kamala River and crossing passes to reach the Nepal-China border. He sought an easy route, sometimes traveling through Nepal and sometimes through Tibetan territories, eventually reaching Tatopani in the eastern part of the Kathmandu Valley. From Tatopani, he descended to Sankhu, where he is said to have stayed at Lhasapa in Sudal Village, Bhaktapur District, which remains an important Buddhist pilgrimage site to this day.
However, due to a lack of historical knowledge about the Nepal-China border, the ancient Nepalese Buddhist community has steadfastly believed that Manjushri was a Chinese spiritual teacher, based on stories and legends.
According to Pradhan and other Buddhist scholars, Manjushri entered the Kathmandu Valley via the Tatopani-Sankhu route from North India, crossing the Himalayas, and became the first spiritual teacher to propagate the Mahayana tradition.
Misconceptions About Manjushri’s Chinese Origin
– The Chinese government, Chinese Buddhist institutions, or Chinese history have never claimed Manjushri as a Chinese citizen.
– In the first century CE, when Manjushri’s name spread in Nepal and India, Mahayana Buddhism did not yet exist in China.
– Buddhism first reached China in 67 CE, brought by Indian monks Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaraksha.
– Manjushri’s name and statues were only established in China in the 5th century CE.
– The names of Chinese pilgrims and spiritual teachers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, Songtsen Gampo, Wang Hiuen-Chang, and Ising are well-known in Nepal. If Manjushri were Chinese, his name would have been popularized in some Chinese form. Why was he only known by the Sanskrit name “Manjushri”?
– After leaving Nepal, Manjushri’s disciple was named *Dharmakara*, which is also a Sanskrit name. If Manjushri were Chinese, his disciple’s name would have been in Chinese.
The Evolution of Buddhist Art
For several centuries after Buddha’s Nirvana, there was no tradition of creating his statues. Symbols such as the Bodhi tree, footprints, the Dharma wheel, umbrellas, and empty thrones were used to represent him. However, towards the end of the first century BCE, influenced by Greek art in Northwest India, the first Buddha statues were created in the Gandhara style during the reign of King Menander (Milinda Panha’s Yavana ruler, 175–40 BCE). Around 90 BCE, statues of Maitreya Buddha and Aryavalokiteshvara Bodhisattva also appeared.
Between 148–170 CE, the ‘Sukhavati Vyuha’ scripture, translated into Chinese, mentioned Aryavalokiteshvara and Amitabha Buddha. By 384–417 CE, the names of Akshobhya Buddha and Manjushri Bodhisattva were also mentioned. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (629–645 CE) mentioned Padmapani Bodhisattva and Vajrapani Bodhisattva in his travel accounts.
Around 300 CE, Indrabhuti is said to have established the five Dhyani Buddhas as lords of the five skandhas. Later, in the 10th century, the scholar Jnanasiddhi defined the five Buddhas as forms, feminine energy, and mental sons, creating the five Bodhisattvas. By the 10th century, the number of Buddhist deities had significantly increased, leading to the concept of Adi Buddha (primordial Buddha) as the supreme being. This process shows that the creation and conceptualization of Buddhist deities evolved over time.
The Significance of Chaityas
Chaityas (stupas) have existed as places of worship long before the time of Shakyamuni Gautama Buddha. However, the Mahayana-Vajrayana chaityas found throughout the valley today, with Buddha statues in every direction, were not the norm. These chaityas often lacked statues or other embellishments. Even the Licchavi-era stone chaityas in the valley, which still stand today, do not feature Buddha statues but only empty niches with toranas. This suggests that the practice of installing Buddha statues in chaityas did not exist from the 2nd to the 10th–11th centuries CE. Similarly, no statues have been found in the stupas of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Mohenjo-Daro. Historians believe these date back to a time before Shakyamuni Buddha, during the era of previous Buddhas. Evidence of the practices of these previous Buddhas can be found in Hiuen Tsang’s travel accounts, even though they were sporadic by the time of Shakyamuni Buddha.
According to the ‘Digha Nikaya’, shortly after Shakyamuni Buddha attained enlightenment in 528 BCE, his first disciples, Tapassu and Bhalluka, took a few strands of hair from their heads and returned to their homeland, Ukkala (modern-day Odisha). There, they built a stupa to enshrine the hair, which is considered the first bodily relic stupa (or chaitya) of Shakyamuni Buddha.
The ‘Digha Nikaya’ classifies chaityas into four types: ‘Sharika’, ‘Paribhoga’, ‘Dharma’, and ‘Uddheshya’. Most Mahayana chaityas align with the ‘Uddheshya’ category.
The Construction of Swayambhu Chaitya
Genealogical records mention the involvement of Gunakar, Shantishri monks, and King Vrishadeva in the construction of Swayambhu Chaitya. The ‘Rajbhog Mala Vamshavali’ states:
“After some time, King Prachandadev became deeply devoted to Buddhism and abdicated the throne to his son to travel the country. At that time, there was a powerful monk named Gunakar. King Prachandadev received teachings from him and decided to serve him, naming him Shantishri. After some days, Gunakar suggested building a chaitya at Swayambhu Kund. The king agreed, and with Gunakar’s guidance, the Swayambhu Kund Chaitya was constructed. Following this, five cities—Vasupur, Varunpur, Agnipur, Vayupur, and Sammarpur—were established, each with a deity installed.”
Other texts also mention similar accounts. However, genealogical records are not considered verified history.
According to Baburam Acharya, King Vrishadeva ruled around the 5th century CE, about 12 kings after Jayadev, who established the Licchavi kingdom in the valley around 282 CE. Prachandadev came to Nepal with the intention of becoming a ‘Vajracharya’ and received ordination from Gunakar. Both figures appear to have been highly influential. King Vrishadeva seems to have been deeply influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, so much so that he adopted the title ‘Sugatshasanpakshapati’ (favoring the Buddha’s teaching).
Historically, Mahayana Buddhism emerged and spread by the 3rd century CE, while Vajrayana flourished from the 9th to the 12th centuries CE. Based on the above information, King Vrishadeva’s reign falls around the 5th century CE. According to Baburam Acharya, the Licchavis arrived in the valley in the 1st century CE, defeated the Kirat kings, and established the Licchavi kingdom around 282 CE. Being patrons of Buddhism, they are believed to have introduced Buddhism to the valley.
Dhanvajra Vajracharya also holds the view that Mahayana Buddhism was propagated in the valley during the Licchavi period. Regardless, it is likely that Mahayana Buddhism entered during the reign of Vrishadeva or earlier kings, and figures like Gunakar and Shantishri further popularized it among kings like Vrishadeva.
Shantishri was a Mahayana Tantric guru, and Swayambhu Chaitya is deeply connected to the Mahayana tradition. According to Mahayana philosophy, Manjushri embodies wisdom, while Tara represents compassion. The influence of these philosophies is evident in the construction of Swayambhu Chaitya, showcasing the strong presence of Mahayana thought.
As Mahayana Buddhism gained prominence, the construction of Swayambhu Chaitya likely took place. However, Mahayana followers claim that the construction occurred during the Dvapara Yuga, not 1600 years ago during a specific king’s reign. Nevertheless, there is no clear historical evidence for this. Swayambhu Chaitya is considered a reflection of all major aspects of the Mahayana tradition.
Physical Structure of Swayambhu Chaitya
The chaitya’s structure features statues of Dhyani Buddhas and Taras carefully placed around the sanctum. Climbing the long eastern staircase, one primarily sees the east-facing Vairocana Buddha. To the right and left are statues of other Buddhas: Akshobhya, Mamaki, Ratnasambhava, Padmapani Tara, Amitabha, Aryatara, Amoghasiddhi, and Saptalochana Tara. It is widely believed that the light in the sanctum of Swayambhu still exists. The chaitya’s structure is built in the ‘Patrakriti’ style.
Renovations and Reconstructions
According to genealogical records, Licchavi King Manadev restored ancient temples. The Vamshavali mentions that Manjushri built a large chaitya on the eastern hill and installed Swayambhu Bhagwan. Manadev offered a fine umbrella to Swayambhu.
In 1406 CE, during an invasion by Shamsuddin of Multan, Swayambhu Chaitya was destroyed. Statues were ruined, and many other items were damaged. This event is recorded on a stone inscription at Swayambhu. During the reconstruction, Mahapatra Rajharsha Bhallok of Kantipur rebuilt the chaitya in 1429 CE.
King Jyoti Malla of Bhaktapur restored the chaitya in 1869 CE, King Nripendra Malla in 1732–1737 CE, and King Mahendra between 2015–2017 CE.
The Meaning of “Swayambhu”
The term ‘Swayambhu’ generally means “self-manifested.” In Buddhist philosophy, the universe is not created by a supernatural being or god but is believed to have evolved from primordial energy. This primordial open space is unknowable, abstract, formless, yet energetic, dynamic, and ever-changing. This dynamism when obscured generates activity, understood as ‘samskara’ (mental formations). As this process continues, the inanimate and formless evolve into ‘vijnana’ (consciousness), considered the initial stage of a living being’s development. From this, ‘nama-rupa’ (name and form) develops, giving rise to form and consciousness. Over millions of years of gradual evolution, modern humans emerged, with their intelligence and capabilities continually advancing.
Buddha’s teachings were the result of continuous exploration and experience by the society before him and previous Buddhas, as evidenced by Emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions, accounts by Chinese pilgrims, archaeological findings from the Indus Valley Civilization (such as stupas, Dharma wheels, and seals), and written literature. His teachings focus on observing the natural state of the mind, allowing one to remove the impurities of momentary thoughts and the suffering that arises from them. By remaining in this natural state, one can attain peace and lasting happiness, as reflected in his teachings.
This fundamental state of mind and nature, known as ‘Swoyambhu’, is referred to in Mahayana philosophy as ‘Adi Buddha’, ‘Dharmadhatu’, ‘Vagishvara’, ‘Jyotirupa’, ‘Vajradhara’, ‘Vajrasattva’, ‘Namasangiti’, and ‘Mahamanjushri’.
Through meditation and discernment, one can observe how thoughts and emotions dissolve into a state where the thinking mind and the perceived physical world become inseparable. It is noteworthy that these ideas, articulated over 2,500 years ago, align with modern scientific understanding that energy and matter are ultimately inseparable.
Conclusion
Thus, Swayambhu is not only a unique ancestral heritage of the Nepalese people but also a guiding light for the future and a source of inspiration for knowledge and science.
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Reference:
Pradhan, Bhuvan Lal. ‘Swayambhu: A Brief Introduction’. Kathmandu.
Rhys Davids.
Upadhyaya, B. (1946). Buddhist Philosophy Mimamsa. Varanasi: Sharada-Mandir.